The crown, the scepter, the orb, and the holy lance (amongst others)

Vienna has many interesting sights, especially for the visitor interested in history and culture. On a weeklong trip to the Austrian capital, we had trouble to select what to see and which sights to leave out of our not unreasonably packed schedule. If I had only half an hour, the choice would have been so much easier: the Secular and Sacred Treasuries (Weltliche und Geistliche Schatzkammer) in the Hofburg. More specifically, Rooms 9 to 12 that house the insignia and symbols of state of the Holy Roman Empire.

The Treasury in the Hofburg has a marvelous collection of crowns, scepters, orbs, and other symbols of state related to the Austrian Habsburg dynasty as well as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. It also has several relics and reliquaries.

Historically, the most important items are the imperial crown and the holy lance. Both were present at the foundation of the Holy Roman Empire in the tenth century and remained vital items in the ceremonial functions of this entity. Early on, it was believed that he who was in the possession of the holy lance would be invincible. Its presence at the battle at Lechfeld was credited with the German victory over the heathen Magyars – a triumph that made out of King Otto I, Emperor Otto the Great. Although the holy lance in later centuries lost its significance, the crown remained vital at coronations. With few exceptions, it was used at the coronations of all emperors from the first one, Otto I (962-973) to the last one, Franz II (1792-1806).

The regalia and insignia of the Austrian Empire (1804-1918) are historically less important, but artistically of higher value – they are around six centuries newer. The personal crown of Rudolf II and the orb of Matthias were selected as the insignia of the new Austrian Empire. Both items were made in Prague in the early-seventeenth century and represent a highpoint in European goldsmithery.

Quick Tips:

It is important to distinguish between the Holy Roman Empire, the Austrian Empire, and the Habsburg dynasty. The Austrian Empire existed from 1804 to 1918 and was an empire mostly based on the acceptance of the Habsburg emperor as head of state of Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary. It was mostly a personal, rather than political union. Items related to this empire are exhibited in Rooms 1 to 4.

The Habsburg dynasty ruled over Austria in its various forms from 1282 to 1918. Items related to this dynasty are displayed in Rooms 5 to 8 and 13 to 16. From 1438 to 1806, with one exception, the ruling Habsburger was also the Holy Roman emperor.

The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation disbanded in 1806. Its origins are debatable: some trace it back to the coronation of Charlemagne in 800, others the election of the first Saxon king of Germany, Heinrich I (919), and most to the coronation of Otto I as first German Roman emperor (962). The items on display in Rooms 9 to 12 are mostly from the early centuries of this empire.

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In contrasts to many Viennese sights, the Treasury is closed on Tuesday and open all other days from 10 am to 6 pm. Although this would at least potentially make Monday the worse day to visit, we found the museum fairly quiet. Visiting during lunch hour clearly helped – there are sufficient cafés in the near vicinity for an early or delayed lunch in exchange for a quiet museum. The museum rooms are dark and not particularly large making crowding around the lit glass cases a potential irritant at busy times.

The entrance to the Treasury is in the Schweizerhof courtyard adjacent to the Hofsburg’s court chapel (Burgkapelle), home of the Vienna Boys’ Choir. Do not confuse the Treasury (Schatzkammer) with the Imperial Silver Collection (Silberkammer) at the entrance to the Imperial Apartments.

Admission is a not insubstantial € 8 but included a free audio guide. (According to the museum’s website that now adds a further € 2.)

Rooms nos. 9 to 12 house the imperial regalia of the Holy Roman Empire, by far the most powerful entity in medieval Europe. The most important items here date from the first three centuries of the empire, when it included most of present-day Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and the Netherlands, as well as large parts of Belgium, France, and Northern Italy. To appreciate the symbolic value of the items on display here, it is important to know the early history of the Holy Roman Empire – a complicated and confusing subject.

The Holy Roman Empire is one of those delightful misnomers in history. It was not an empire as we understand it today – it had no central capital; the emperor was elected and his influence only stretched as far as he could inspire or buy support. Dukes and other senior nobility constantly connived to increase their power vis-à-vis the emperor, and from the mid-13th century, the empire was more a concept than a real force. The citizens were mostly not Roman, and it was definitely not holy – far from it. Although religion played a very important role in the running of the empire, especially in the first centuries, the political leadership tended towards pragmatism and realpolitik rather than hoping for divine intervention. The odd deeply religious emperor was often balanced by a particularly worldly pope.

The origins of the Holy Roman Empire is often traced back to Charlemagne, who was crowned on Christmas Day AD 800 by the pope as emperor and legal successor to the long-defunct Western Roman Empire. After his death, his empire was divided and out of the eastern parts grew what at that time was known as the East Frankish Kingdom. This formed the base of what later became known as the Holy Roman. This kingdom was ruled by Frankish rulers, until Konrad I, who was generally an ineffective ruler, redeemed himself on his deathbed with the momentous recommendation that his chief rival, Heinrich, Duke of Saxony, rather than his own brother, be elected as his successor.

In 919, Heinrich I was duly elected and crowned German king. The Saxons would rule Germany for more than a century in an era often referred to as the Ottonian Renaissance, seeing that the three Ottos were strong supporters of the arts, culture, and science.

In 936, Heinrich I was succeeded by his son Otto I, who, in his own lifetime, was already referred to as Otto the Great. He destroyed the Magyar army at the battle of Lechfeld near Augsburg, and thus made Christian Western Europe safe from non-Christian attacks from the east for more than five centuries. Still on the battlefield, his soldiers proclaimed him Emperor. Otto did the natural thing: ordered a crown to be made, probably from the master jewelers on the Lake Constance Island of Reichenau. (This small island has three Romanesque churches worth a journey.) This very crown is the one on display in room no. 11 and has been the formal imperial crown until the end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.

The German senior nobility elected the German king, and although the position was not hereditary, most kings with sons managed to secure one as successor. However, it has been tradition since the crowning of Charlemagne that only the pope could crown an emperor. Although King Otto had the soldiers support, he wanted it to be rather more formal. Crown in hand, he went to Rome and was duly crowned Roman Emperor in 962. Emperors and pretenders found that it was generally easy to get rid of an uncooperative pope. The trick, as Heinrich IV found out to his costs, was to do so before the pope could excommunicate you. Popes generally found it harder to get rid of emperors, but that did not stop them from trying.

In order to guarantee the succession, Otto I succeeded in having one of his sons, Otto II, crowned as joint king. Otto II saw the merits of this system, and once emperor himself, ordered that his own son, Otto III, be made joint king. The ceremony was scheduled for December 21, 983 in Aachen. Unknown to the Nobility, who gathered in Aachen on this occasion, or for anyone else north of the Alps for that matter, Otto II, who was in Rome for the investiture of a new pope, had died on 7 December. Messengers could not reach Aachen in time, and the most powerful entity in Europe suddenly found itself with a 3-year-old king. Despite very strong opposition, including the actual kidnapping of Otto, his mother became regent and ruled most competently. Showing great maturity, Otto III took over the reigns at age 15, a year earlier than the then norm.

Aged 28, Otto III died childless while in Italy. Several distant family members claimed the throne, but his uncle Heinrich decided to gain a head start on the rest by highjacking the funeral procession on its way from Italy to Aachen. He thus came into possession of the imperial insignia including the crown, scepter, and sword. The only missing piece was the Holy Lance – the archbishop of Cologne, who was traveling with the body of the deceased king, thought it wise to send the lance ahead with a separate party. A not particularly clever move – Heinrich held the archbishop in custody until the lance turned up. In 1002, Heinrich II was duly elected German king and later crowned emperor.

Heinrich II and his wife, Kunighilde, had a platonic, non-sexual relationship that naturally left no heir. (They were the only imperial couple that ever became saints.) For the next century, the German Roman Empire was ruled by the Frankish Salian dynasty. The period is typified by a lack of interests in the arts, culture, and science, as well as severe animosity between the emperors and popes, which is surprising, as the Salians built several churches, including the marvelous Romanesque cathedral in Speyer. The high or low point, depending on the view of the observer, of this time was the excommunication of Henry IV and his claimed 3 days of repentance in the snow at the pope’s fortress at Canossa.

The Salians were followed by a century of rule by the Staufers. The first Staufer king, Friedrich I Barbarossa, learned from his predecessors’ troubles with the popes and, in order to elevate his own position to equal that of the pope, introduced the concept of the Holy Roman Empire. The Staufer era ended in the mid-13th century with the loss of the Italian provinces. The empire from then to 1806 has generally been referred to as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, although several non-German areas remained part of the empire for centuries. For example, Alsace and Lorraine were only lost to France after the Thirty Years’ War (1618-48), and the city of Strasbourg remained part of the empire until the revolutionary wars of the late-18th century.

The Staufers were followed by emperors elected from various noble families, until the Austrian Habsburg dynasty took control from 1438. Of the last 18 emperors, only one was not a Habsburg, and he ruled for only 3 years (long enough to refurbish a mighty fine palace in Munich!) After the Staufers, no emperor succeeded in ruling like Caesar – Germany remained divided into up to 3,000 different political entities, each with its own rulers – none interested in placing the interest of Germany above that of his own.

The German king was elected by senior nobility and crowned by the archbishop of Mainz in Aachen (later in Frankfurt). To be crowned emperor, it was for long still necessary for the king to travel to the pope. During the reign of Maximilian I (1493-1519), the pretence to be Roman emperor was dropped. Subsequently, all elected German kings were crowned Holy Roman Emperor at the same coronation function in Frankfurt.

The history of the Holy Roman Empire came to an abrupt end in 1806. With the Napoleonic armies victorious throughout Europe, Emperor Franz II feared that Napoleon would claim the throne of the Holy Roman Empire, too. Franz II therefore abdicated and unconstitutionally announced the dissolution of the empire and all its political and legal bodies. With Austria and Prussia fighting over supremacy in the German-speaking world, attempts to reconstitute the empire after 1815 were always doomed to failure.

If the crowning of Charlemagne in 800, rather the crowning of Otto I (962), is taken as the origin the empire, then it did indeed last more than 1,000 years. Attempts to recreate such empire in the 20th century of course failed, and in 12 years, destroyed, amongst other things, the reputation of a millennium.

The imperial regalia and insignia (Reichskleinöden) are nowadays displayed in Rooms 9 to 12 of the Secular Treasury in the Hofburg. It consists of 37 items: the most important are on display in room 11, including the crown, orb, cross, holy lance, sword, and scepter.

During the first five centuries of the empire, the royal insignia and other treasures were kept by the ruling king in the imperial palaces (Pfalz) scattered through the empire. A coronation without the crown was generally considered illegitimate and taking possession of the imperial insignia was therefore an important first step towards securing the throne. This was often done immediately following the death of an emperor without a clear heir but several pretenders, including many anointed sons, did not wait for the death of the emperor before grabbing the jewels and on a few occasions the throne too.

On 29 September 1423, Emperor Sigismund granted the free imperial city of Nürnberg (Nuremberg) the privilege of keeper of the imperial treasure. This right was permanent, in perpetuity, until the fullness of time, not recallable, and undisputable. Henceforth, the royal insignia was kept in Nürnberg, which made a pretty penny out of pilgrims visiting the relics contained in especially the Holy Lance, and only left the city for the coronations that took place in Frankfurt.

However, in 1796, French troops were marching on Nürnberg and to prevent the imperial insignia falling into their hands, the treasury was temporarily moved to Regensburg. Four years later, Napoleon was threatening Regensburg too and the treasury was moved in haste to Vienna. Emperor Franz II gave his personal assurances that this was only a temporary measure. However, in 1806, fearing that Napoleon would claim the throne of the Holy Roman Empire too, Franz II unconstitutionally announced the dissolution of the empire. Ever since, Vienna has refused to return the jewels to Nürnberg.

In 1938, the National Socialists returned the insignia to Nürnberg for propaganda purposes. During the Second World War, the insignia and other art works were hidden in a cave. The most important items, including the crown, were actually built into a wall. Only four people knew the exact location. After the war, fearing the Americans would honor the centuries-old European tradition of to-the-winners-go-the-spoils, they initially refused to reveal the location. This fear was not totally unfounded – the American army sergeant charged with protecting the treasure in Quedlinburg cathedral mailed a few choice items back home and these only returned to Germany after his heirs tried to sell them and Germany paid a few million dollars "finding fee". Most East German art treasures also "detoured" the Soviet Union for several years after the war before returning to Germany.

Once it became clear that the Americans would not take the crown to the States, the location was revealed. However, the American occupiers, with knowledge of history not dating back far or a lack of comprehension what perpetuity means, had the complete treasure returned to the Hofburg in Vienna. (To add insult to injury, the Nuremberg Trials left most of the non-German speaking world with an impression of Nuremberg as a Nazi haven rather than its centuries-old imperial tradition.) Copies of the insignia are on display in Nuremberg but those, of course, are not the real thing.

The holy lance is the oldest item of the imperial. It is both a relic and a reliquary: it contains a nail from the cross of Christ and in addition, it is claimed that this is the sword used to test whether Christ was indeed dead. It goes without saying, in medieval Europe such a treasure would indeed be a wonderful money spinner drawing pilgrims from near and far

However, this lance also drew kings, as it was claimed that whoever possesses the lance would be invincible in battle. This claim was taken seriously enough. Around 930 German King Heinrich I forked over a large part of his kingdom to Rudolph II of Burgundy in order to obtain the lance. (I assume the battle would have had to be against heathen nations and not an aggressive war against fellow Christians otherwise there seems to be little logic why Rudolph, lance in hand, simply did not take the whole kingdom by force.) The Holy Lance soon proved its worth when Heinrich defeated the Hungarians and secured the empire’s borders. His son and successor, Otto I, would go one further, at the battle of Lechfeld, after praying with the Holy Lance at his side, wiped out the Hungarian armies, and permanently destroyed the Hungarian threat to Christian Europe.

For long, the Holy Lance was the most important item in the imperial regalia, even overshadowing the crown. Modern science showed that the lance was made during the eight century, but the nail is indeed older. The lance is just over 50-cm long and the blade is up to 1.5-cm thick. The nail is attached to the lance with silver wire. A golden sheath was added by Heinrich IV.

Ever since the early-eleventh century, the Holy Lance was kept in the Imperial Cross (Reichkreuz), a hollow, jewel-encrusted reliquary made especially for this purpose. Presently they are exhibited side by side. The cross further houses a splinter from Christ’s cross itself – no doubt acquired at considerable expense to the taxpayers somewhere. The cross was probably made in Constantinople around 1030, while the base was made in Prague in 1352. The height of the cross is just shy of one meter.

Of all the imperial insignia, none was more important than the crown. A coronation without the crown was neither impossible nor unheard of but was generally considered illegitimate. In the early centuries of the empire, before the imperial insignia found a permanent home in Nürnberg, stealing the crown, usually but not always, after the death of the previous emperor was an important first step towards claiming the throne in cases where an obvious successor was not present.

In contrast to most crowns, this crown is not round but rather an octagon with eight separate golden shields linked by hinges. It has 144 precious stones and around the same number of pearls. These gems are not set in the metal but rather fixed in holes in the golden plates so light can shine through them. On four of the eight plates are biblical scenes with the Old Testament kings David, Salomon, and Hiskia. The fourth is of Christ with the red-lettered, Latin inscription per me reges regnant (By me monarchs govern – Proverbs 8:15) Many an emperor would quote this verse in the struggle against papal interference in secular political affairs.

The cross on the top of the crown was added by Heinrich II, probably in response to a similar addition to the Byzantine crown at the same time. The arch that connects the front and rear of the crown was added by Konrad II and has a Latin inscription with small pearls meaning: Konrad by the grace of God emperor of the Romans and Augustus.

The crown has a diameter of 22 cm with the base plates almost 15 cm high and the cross adding another 10 cm. It weighs 3.5 kg (7 lb) and therefore one often had someone to hold one’s crown over one’s imperial head rather than parading around with it on one’s own head. (Most rulers had personal crowns for every day use.)

The origins of the crown are not completely clear-cut. The first written reference to the imperial crown is in a poem by Walther von der Vogelweide composed for the coronation of Philipp of Swabia in 1198. In this poem, it is stated that the crown is much older than the king but more importantly, the fact that it fitted Philipp’s head so perfectly, sure was a sign from heaven. (Just as well it fitted, as Philipp was crowned twice. An anti-king was elected and crowned and only after an international and civil war could Philipp be crowned a second time as undisputed king. However, he was never crowned emperor and died a violent death at the hand of an angry, sword-wielding count palatinate.)

During the later-medieval period, it was commonly assumed that the crown was that of Charlemagne. An oft-quoted description by Goethe of the coronation of Franz II (1792) refers to the crown as that of Charlemagne. (Goethe loved the pomp and circumstance of the event but found the medieval dress and oversized crown somewhat comical.) Only with twentieth-century technology has it been possible to confirm that the octagonal base is indeed from the time of Otto I.

The coronation of a Holy Roman emperor required the presence of several items full of symbolic importance. What looks like a somewhat kitsch, bejeweled handbag, is actually St Stephan’s purse. This Carolingian reliquary once housed the blood-soaked sand from the martyrdom of St Stephan. It was believed that the purse came from the tomb of Charlemagne and it was thus a relic in itself. At coronations of the king, the purse was lowered into the throne to symbolize the link between the great Charlemagne and the person being crowned.

St Stephan’s purse is around 30-cm high and made of gold-covered wood and bejeweled with precious stones, pearls, and glass. Most of it dates from the early-ninth century but the clasp is fifteenth century and the less glamorous reverse side was replaced in 1827.

In addition to the crown, a coronation also required the presence of an imperial sword, scepter, and orb. In contrast to the crown, these were not specific pieces and different ones were used through the centuries by different rulers. The presence of sharp objects no doubt contributed to several emperors ordering their bodyguards to pray either before or after the event but to remain standing and vigilant during the actual coronation.

The imperial orb, or Reichsapfel (lit. imperial apple), on display probably dates from the late-twelfth century. It is just over 20-cm high with the ball symbolizing the world and the cross on top that the emperor rule on earth by the grace of God.

With the majority of people and many rulers illiterate, medieval man had to get by with symbols and ceremony. The coronation of a new emperor was not only a colorful event but also the chance to send strong signals to friends and foes. Every item of the imperial regalia had its meaning – although we may find it hard to comprehend, medieval man knew exactly why these items were at the coronation and what they stood for. The presence or absence of certain persons and items could send a strong message. Maximilian’s election was disputed by the French and Venetians amongst others so he wanted to signal at his coronation that he would defend his throne militarily if necessary. A few choice words might have been called for, but why risk the message getting lost in translation or misinterpret by diplomats. Leaving the orb in storage and carrying a cannon ball instead got the message through loud and clear: the Venetian doge extended his sincerest felicitations within days.

Although the regalia and insignia of the Holy Roman Empire are doubtless the historical more significant, the regalia of the Austrian Empire (1804-1918) in the first rooms of the museum sparkles too. The highlights are the crown and orb selected by Franz I to be become the imperial insignia of the Austrian Empire.

From 1438 until the dissolution of the Empire in 1806, the Austrian Habsburg dynasty provided the Holy Roman emperor, with only one exception. Although internal rivalry and divisions prevented the potentially strongest entity in Europe from achieving even an iota of its full potential, the figurehead of the empire was the only emperor and that counted in the order of precedence stakes. However, in 1804 Napoleon crowned himself emperor of France. Franz II realized the Holy Roman Empire was unlikely to survive Napoleon’s grand plans for Europe and had himself crowned Franz I of the new Austrian Empire. In 1806, he could announce the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire without loosing the status of emperor.

Traditionally, the crown of the Holy Roman Empire was only used during coronations. At 3.5 kg it was far too heavy for everyday use and it was kept locked up in Nuremberg anyway. Emperors therefore had their own personal crowns made. Virtually all were broken up afterwards to recycle the jewels and gold. A notable exception is the personal crown of Rudolf II – it was considered far too beautiful to destroy and represents a highpoint of European goldsmithery. It was made in Prague in 1602 of gold adorned with diamonds, pearls, rubies, and topped by a huge sapphire. It is not only beautiful but also full of symbolism. The fleur-de-lis symbolize royalty (Rudolf II was king of Bohemia and of Hungary), the arch reminds of the crown of the Holy Roman Empire (Rudolf was emperor from 1576 to 1612), and the golden mitre reminds that the emperor ruled by the grace of God. In 1804, Franz I selected this crown as the imperial crown of the Austrian Empire. However, the crown was only symbolic – it was never actually used during a coronation. Souvenirs of all types and sizes with the crown of Rudolf II are on sale in the souvenir shop.

The Austrian Empire was founded at a time of war and great uncertainty in all of Europe. Rather than waste time and money on new jewels, Franz I delved further into the treasury and selected the orb of Emperor Matthias (1612-19) as the new imperial insignia. Like Rudolf II, his brother and predecessor, Matthias had good taste and the orb is a real beauty too. The orb, also made in Prague, is like the crown made of gold with pearls, diamonds, rubies, and a single large sapphire.

Several other items of the Austrian imperial regalia are on display including imperial robes. Note the large painting of Franz I by Friedrich von Amerling. It shows the emperor in full imperial regalia, which he never actually worn.

Apart from the Austrian and Holy Roman imperial regalia, the Treasury houses a wealth of further possessions of the Habsburg family. Several choice items remind of events the Habsburgs probably would have preferred history had rather forgotten.

In room 5 is a crib fit for an emperor in the making. It is over 2-m high, weighs 280 kg, and made of silver-gilt, gold, mother-of-pearl, and copper plates covered with velvet, silk, and tulle with golden and silver embroidery. It was produced in Paris in 1811 for Napoleon-François-Charles-Joseph Bonaparte (1811-1832), son of Napoleon Bonaparte and Austrian princess Marie Louise. Although Napoleon crowned his baby king of Rome, his destiny was clearly that of emperor of France. This was not to be – even being the grandson of Emperor Franz I was never going to elevate him to highest echelons of power. Following Napoleon’s defeat in 1814, the young Napoleon Franz lost his kingdom and spent the rest of his life in virtual isolation in Vienna’s Schloss Schönbrunn. The boy was given the title Duke of Reichstadt in order for him to take an appropriate place at Vienna’s protocol obsessed court. No doubt delighted by the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte, the Habsburg nonetheless failed for the second time in a generation to establish a direct family link with the ruler of France.

Of course, little was learned from the experiences of Marie Antoinette and the slightly less unfortunate Marie Louise. Those two disastrous diplomatic ventures were clearly forgotten by 1864 when the Hapsburgs allowed the brother of then Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph to make his brother available as Emperor Maximilian of Mexico. Was the glory days, when the Habsburg Emperor Karl V ruled most of Europe and the Spanish empire on which the sun never set, about to return? Not quite. Mexico was in a state of revolution and Emperor Maximilian could only stay in power with the aid of French troops. When the French withdrew their troops, Maximilian was soon defeated by the republicans led by Benito Juarez. In 1867, a firing squad brought an end to this adventure. The Mexican imperial regalia, specially produced for this rather brief reign are a reminder of the sad episode and/or why it is best to refrain from regime change in foreign lands against the wishes of the local population.

From 1526 until 1918, the Habsburg dynasty was the de jure rulers of Hungary. The interesting crown of István Bocskay reminds that this rule was often disputed. Bocskay, a Calvinist aristocrat was elected prince of Transylvania in 1605. The Turkish sultan, who at this stage was at war with Austria, sent this Persian crown to the prince. The crown, a contemporary of Rudolf’s crown, is unlike any other used in Christian Europe and is displayed with its original case.

The last room exhibits the Liturgical Vestments of the Order of the Golden Fleece – the Habsburg emperor was grand master of the order. These capes were made around 1430 – do not rush for the exit without first admiring close up the incredible detailing of the embroidery.